Pembentukan dan pertumbuhan Kerajaan Sriwijaya

Belum banyak bukti fisik mengenai Sriwijaya yang dapat ditemukan.Kerajaan ini menjadi pusat perdagangan dan merupakan negara bahari, namun kerajaan ini tidak memperluas kekuasaannya di luar wilayah kepulauan Asia Tenggara, dengan pengecualian berkontribusi untuk populasi Madagaskar sejauh 3.300 mil di barat. Beberapa ahli masih memperdebatkan kawasan yang menjadi pusat pemerintahan Sriwijaya, selain itu kemungkinan kerajaan ini biasa memindahkan pusat pemerintahannya, namun kawasan yang menjadi ibukota tetap diperintah secara langsung oleh penguasa, sedangkan daerah pendukungnya diperintah oleh datu setempat.

Kemaharajaan Sriwijaya telah ada sejak 671 sesuai dengan catatan I Tsing, dari prasasti Kedukan Bukit pada tahun 682 di diketahui imperium ini di bawah kepemimpinan Dapunta Hyang. Di abad ke-7 ini, orang Tionghoa mencatat bahwa terdapat dua kerajaan yaitu Malayu dan Kedah menjadi bagian kemaharajaan Sriwijaya. Berdasarkan prasasti Kota Kapur yang berangka tahun 686 ditemukan di pulau Bangka, kemaharajaan ini telah menguasai bagian selatan Sumatera, pulau Bangka dan Belitung, hingga Lampung. Prasasti ini juga menyebutkan bahwa Sri Jayanasa telah melancarkan ekspedisi militer untuk menghukum Bhumi Jawa yang tidak berbakti kepada Sriwijaya, peristiwa ini bersamaan dengan runtuhnya Tarumanagara di Jawa Barat dan Holing (Kalingga) di Jawa Tengah yang kemungkinan besar akibat serangan Sriwijaya. Sriwijaya tumbuh dan berhasil mengendalikan jalur perdagangan maritim di Selat Malaka, Selat Sunda, Laut China Selatan, Laut Jawa, dan Selat Karimata.

Ekspansi kerajaan ini ke Jawa dan Semenanjung Malaya, menjadikan Sriwijaya mengendalikan dua pusat perdagangan utama di Asia Tenggara. Berdasarkan observasi, ditemukan reruntuhan candi-candi Sriwijaya di Thailand dan Kamboja. Di abad ke-7, pelabuhan Cham di sebelah timur Indochina mulai mengalihkan banyak pedagang dari Sriwijaya. Untuk mencegah hal tersebut, Maharaja Dharmasetu melancarkan beberapa serangan ke kota-kota pantai di Indochina. Kota Indrapura di tepi sungai Mekong, di awal abad ke-8 berada di bawah kendali Sriwijaya. Sriwijaya meneruskan dominasinya atas Kamboja, sampai raja Khmer Jayawarman II, pendiri kemaharajaan Khmer, memutuskan hubungan dengan Sriwijaya pada abad yang sama. Di akhir abad ke-8 beberapa kerajaan di Jawa, antara lain Tarumanegara dan Holing berada di bawah kekuasaan Sriwijaya. Menurut catatan, pada masa ini pula wangsa Sailendra bermigrasi ke Jawa Tengah dan berkuasa disana. Di abad ini pula, Langkasuka di semenanjung Melayu menjadi bagian kerajaan. Di masa berikutnya, Pan Pan dan Trambralinga, yang terletak di sebelah utara Langkasuka, juga berada di bawah pengaruh Sriwijaya.

Setelah Dharmasetu, Samaratungga menjadi penerus kerajaan. Ia berkuasa pada periode 792 sampai 835. Tidak seperti Dharmasetu yang ekspansionis, Samaratungga tidak melakukan ekspansi militer, tetapi lebih memilih untuk memperkuat penguasaan Sriwijaya di Jawa. Selama masa kepemimpinannya, ia membangun candi Borobudur di Jawa Tengah yang selesai pada tahun 825

Kerajaan Sriwijaya adalah salah satu kemaharajaan bahari

Sriwijaya (atau juga disebut Srivijaya; Thai: ศรีวิชัย atau "Ṣ̄rī wichạy") adalah salah satu kemaharajaan bahari yang pernah berdiri di pulau Sumatera dan banyak memberi pengaruh di Nusantara dengan daerah kekuasaan membentang dari Kamboja, Thailand Selatan, Semenanjung Malaya, Sumatera, Jawa, dan pesisir Kalimantan. 

Dalam bahasa Sanskerta, sri berarti "bercahaya" atau "gemilang", dan wijaya berarti "kemenangan" atau "kejayaan", maka nama Sriwijaya bermakna "kemenangan yang gilang-gemilang". Bukti awal mengenai keberadaan kerajaan ini berasal dari abad ke-7; seorang pendeta Tiongkok, I Tsing, menulis bahwa ia mengunjungi Sriwijaya tahun 671 dan tinggal selama 6 bulan.

 Selanjutnya prasasti yang paling tua mengenai Sriwijaya juga berada pada abad ke-7, yaitu prasasti Kedukan Bukit di Palembang, bertarikh 682. Kemunduran pengaruh Sriwijaya terhadap daerah bawahannya mulai menyusut dikarenakan beberapa peperangan di antaranya serangan dari raja Dharmawangsa Teguh dari Jawa pada tahun 990, dan tahun 1025 serangan Rajendra Chola I dari Koromandel, selanjutnya tahun 1183 kekuasaan Sriwijaya di bawah kendali kerajaan Dharmasraya.

Setelah jatuh, kerajaan ini terlupakan dan keberadaannya baru diketahui kembali lewat publikasi tahun 1918 dari sejarawan Perancis Georg

Catatan sejarah

Tidak terdapat catatan lebih lanjut mengenai Sriwijaya dalam sejarah Indonesia; masa lalunya yang terlupakan dibentuk kembali oleh sarjana asing. Tidak ada orang Indonesia modern yang mendengar mengenai Sriwijaya sampai tahun 1920-an, ketika sarjana Perancis George Cœdès mempublikasikan penemuannya dalam surat kabar berbahasa Belanda dan Indonesia.Coedès menyatakan bahwa referensi Tiongkok terhadap "San-fo-ts'i", sebelumnya dibaca "Sribhoja", dan beberapa prasasti dalam Melayu Kuno merujuk pada kekaisaran yang sama.

Selain berita-berita diatas tersebut, telah ditemukan oleh Balai Arkeologi Palembang sebuah perahu kuno yang diperkirakan ada sejak masa awal atau proto Kerajaan Sriwijaya di Desa Sungai Pasir, Kecamatan Cengal, Kabupaten Ogan Komering Ilir, Sumatera Selatan.Sayang, kepala perahu kuno itu sudah hilang dan sebagian papan perahu itu digunakan justru buat jembatan. Tercatat ada 17 keping perahu yang terdiri dari bagian lunas, 14 papan perahu yang terdiri dari bagian badan dan bagian buritan untuk menempatkan kemudi. Perahu ini dibuat dengan teknik pasak kayu dan papan ikat yang menggunakan tali ijuk. Cara ini sendiri dikenal dengan sebutan teknik tradisi Asia Tenggara. Selain bangkai perahu, ditemukan juga sejumlah artefak-artefak lain yang berhubungan dengan temuan perahu, seperti tembikar, keramik, dan alat kayu.

Sriwijaya menjadi simbol kebesaran Sumatera awal, dan kerajaan besar Nusantara selain Majapahit di Jawa Timur. Pada abad ke-20, kedua kerajaan tersebut menjadi referensi oleh kaum nasionalis untuk menunjukkan bahwa Indonesia merupakan satu kesatuan negara sebelelum kolonialisme Belanda.

Sriwijaya disebut dengan berbagai macam nama. Orang Tionghoa menyebutnya Shih-li-fo-shih atau San-fo-ts'i atau San Fo Qi. Dalam bahasa Sanskerta dan bahasa Pali, kerajaan Sriwijaya disebut Yavadesh dan Javadeh. Bangsa Arab menyebutnya Zabaj dan Khmer menyebutnya Malayu. Banyaknya nama merupakan alasan lain mengapa Sriwijaya sangat sulit ditemukan.Sementara dari peta Ptolemaeus ditemukan keterangan tentang adanya 3 pulau Sabadeibei yang kemungkinan berkaitan dengan Sriwijaya.

Sekitar tahun 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin melakukan observasi dan berpendapat bahwa pusat Sriwijaya berada di Sungai Musi antara Bukit Seguntang dan Sabokingking (terletak di provinsi Sumatera Selatan sekarang), tepatnya di sekitar situs Karanganyar yang kini dijadikan Taman Purbakala Kerajaan Sriwijaya.

Pendapat ini didasarkan dari foto udara tahun 1984 yang menunjukkan bahwa situs Karanganyar menampilkan bentuk bangunan air, yaitu jaringan kanal, parit, kolam serta pulau buatan yang disusun rapi yang dipastikan situs ini adalah buatan manusia. Bangunan air ini terdiri atas kolam dan dua pulau berbentuk bujur sangkar dan empat persegi panjang, serta jaringan kanal dengan luas areal meliputi 20 hektar. Di kawasan ini ditemukan banyak peninggalan purbakala yang menunjukkan bahwa kawasan ini pernah menjadi pusat permukiman dan pusat aktifitas manusia.

Namun sebelumnya Soekmono berpendapat bahwa pusat Sriwijaya terletak pada kawasan sehiliran Batang Hari, antara Muara Sabak sampai ke Muara Tembesi (di provinsi Jambi sekarang),dengan catatan Malayu tidak di kawasan tersebut, jika Malayu pada kawasan tersebut, ia cendrung kepada pendapat Moens,yang sebelumnya juga telah berpendapat bahwa letak dari pusat kerajaan Sriwijaya berada pada kawasan Candi Muara Takus (provinsi Riau sekarang), dengan asumsi petunjuk arah perjalanan dalam catatan I Tsing,serta hal ini dapat juga dikaitkan dengan berita tentang pembangunan candi yang dipersembahkan oleh raja Sriwijaya (Se li chu la wu ni fu ma tian hwa atau Sri Cudamaniwarmadewa) tahun 1003 kepada kaisar Cina yang dinamakan cheng tien wan shou (Candi Bungsu, salah satu bagian dari candi yang terletak di Muara Takus).Namun yang pasti pada masa penaklukan oleh Rajendra Chola I, berdasarkan prasasti Tanjore, Sriwijaya telah beribukota di Kadaram (Kedah sekarang).

Federasi antara Kerajaan Sunda dan Galuh

Putera Tarusbawa yang terbesar, Rarkyan Sundasambawa, wafat saat masih muda, meninggalkan seorang anak perempuan, Nay Sekarkancana. Cucu Tarusbawa ini lantas dinikahi oleh Rahyang Sanjaya dari Galuh, sampai mempunyai seorang putera, Rahyang Tamperan.

Ibu dari Sanjaya adalah Sanaha, cucu Ratu Shima dari Kalingga di Jepara. Ayah dari Sanjaya adalah Bratasenawa/Sena/Sanna, Raja Galuh ketiga sekaligus teman dekat Tarusbawa. Sena adalah cucu Wretikandayun dari putera bungsunya, Mandiminyak, raja Galuh kedua (702-709 M). Sena pada tahun 716 M dikudeta dari tahta Galuh oleh Purbasora. Purbasora dan Sena sebenarnya adalah saudara satu ibu, tetapi lain ayah.

Sena dan keluarganya menyelamatkan diri ke Pakuan Pajajaran, pusat Kerajaan Sunda, dan meminta pertolongan pada Tarusbawa. Ironis sekali memang, Wretikandayun, kakek Sena, sebelumnya menuntut Tarusbawa untuk memisahkan Kerajaan Galuh dari Tarumanegara. Dikemudian hari, Sanjaya yang merupakan penerus Kerajaan Galuh yang sah, menyerang Galuh dengan bantuan Tarusbawa. Penyerangan ini bertujuan untuk melengserkan Purbasora.

Saat Tarusbawa meninggal (tahun 723), kekuasaan Sunda dan Galuh berada di tangan Sanjaya. Di tangan Sanjaya, Sunda dan Galuh bersatu kembali. Tahun 732, Sanjaya menyerahkan kekuasaan Sunda-Galuh kepada puteranya Rarkyan Panaraban (Tamperan). Di Kalingga Sanjaya memegang kekuasaan selama 22 tahun (732-754), yang kemudian diganti oleh puteranya dari Déwi Sudiwara, yaitu Rakai Panangkaran. Rarkyan Panaraban berkuasa di Sunda-Galuh selama tujuh tahun (732-739), lalu membagi kekuasaan pada dua puteranya; Sang Manarah (dalam carita rakyat disebut Ciung Wanara) di Galuh, serta Sang Banga (Hariang Banga) di Sunda.

Sang Banga (Prabhu Kertabhuwana Yasawiguna Hajimulya) menjadi raja selama 27 tahun (739-766), tetapi hanya menguasai Sunda dari tahun 759. Dari Déwi Kancanasari, keturunan Demunawan dari Saunggalah, Sang Banga mempunyai putera bernama Rarkyan Medang, yang kemudian meneruskan kekuasaanya di Sunda selama 17 tahun (766-783) dengan gelar Prabhu Hulukujang. Karena anaknya perempuan, Rakryan Medang mewariskan kekuasaanya kepada menantunya, Rakryan Hujungkulon atau Prabhu Gilingwesi dari Galuh, yang menguasai Sunda selama 12 tahun (783-795).

Karena Rakryan Hujungkulon inipun hanya mempunyai anak perempuan, maka kekuasaan Sunda lantas jatuh ke menantunya, Rakryan Diwus (dengan gelar Prabu Pucukbhumi Dharmeswara) yang berkuasa selama 24 tahun (795-819). Dari Rakryan Diwus, kekuasaan Sunda jatuh ke puteranya, Rakryan Wuwus, yang menikah dengan putera dari Sang Welengan (raja Galuh, 806-813). Kekuasaan Galuh juga jatuh kepadanya saat saudara iparnya, Sang Prabhu Linggabhumi (813-842), meninggal dunia. Kekuasaan Sunda-Galuh dipegang oleh Rakryan Wuwus (dengan gelar Prabhu Gajahkulon) sampai ia wafat tahun 891.

Sepeninggal Rakryan Wuwus, kekuasaan Sunda-Galuh jatuh ke adik iparnya dari Galuh, Arya Kadatwan. Hanya saja, karena tidak disukai oleh para pembesar dari Sunda, ia dibunuh tahun 895, sedangkan kekuasaannya diturunkan ke putranya, Rakryan Windusakti. Kekuasaan ini lantas diturunkan pada putera sulungnya, Rakryan Kamuninggading (913). Rakryan Kamuninggading menguasai Sunda-Galuh hanya tiga tahun, sebab kemudian direbut oleh adiknya, Rakryan Jayagiri (916). Rakryan Jayagiri berkuasa selama 28 tahun, kemudian diwariskan kepada menantunya, Rakryan Watuagung, tahun 942. Melanjutkan dendam orangtuanya, Rakryan Watuagung direbut kekuasaannya oleh keponakannya (putera Kamuninggading), Sang Limburkancana (954-964).

Dari Limburkancana, kekuasaan Sunda-Galuh diwariskan oleh putera sulungnya, Rakryan Sundasambawa (964-973). Karena tidak mempunyai putera dari Sundasambawa, kekuasaan tersebut jatuh ke adik iparnya, Rakryan Jayagiri (973-989). Rakryan Jayagiri mewariskan kekuasaannya ka puteranya, Rakryan Gendang (989-1012), dilanjutkan oleh cucunya, Prabhu Déwasanghyang (1012-1019). Dari Déwasanghyang, kekuasaan diwariskan kepada puteranya, lalu ke cucunya yang membuat prasasti Cibadak, Sri Jayabhupati (1030-1042). Sri Jayabhupati adalah menantu dari Dharmawangsa Teguh dari Jawa Timur, mertua raja Airlangga (1019-1042).

Dari Sri Jayabhupati, kekuasaan diwariskan kepada putranya, Dharmaraja (1042-1064), lalu ke cucu menantunya, Prabhu Langlangbhumi ((1064-1154). Prabu Langlangbhumi dilanjutkan oleh putranya, Rakryan Jayagiri (1154-1156), lantas oleh cucunya, Prabhu Dharmakusuma (1156-1175). Dari Prabu Dharmakusuma, kekuasaan Sunda-Galuh diwariskan kepada putranya, Prabhu Guru Dharmasiksa, yang memerintah selama 122 tahun (1175-1297). Dharmasiksa memimpin Sunda-Galuh dari Saunggalah selama 12 tahun, tapi kemudian memindahkan pusat pemerintahan kepada Pakuan Pajajaran, kembali lagi ke tempat awal moyangnya (Tarusbawa) memimpin kerajaan Sunda.

Sepeninggal Dharmasiksa, kekuasaan Sunda-Galuh turun ke putranya yang terbesar, Rakryan Saunggalah (Prabhu Ragasuci), yang berkuasa selama enam tahun (1297-1303). Prabhu Ragasuci kemudian diganti oleh putranya, Prabhu Citraganda, yang berkuasa selama delapan tahun (1303-1311), kemudian oleh keturunannya lagi, Prabu Linggadéwata (1311-1333). Karena hanya mempunyai anak perempuan, Linggadéwata menurunkan kekuasaannya ke menantunya, Prabu Ajiguna Linggawisésa (1333-1340), kemudian ke Prabu Ragamulya Luhurprabawa (1340-1350). Dari Prabu Ragamulya, kekuasaan diwariskan ke putranya, Prabu Maharaja Linggabuanawisésa (1350-1357), yang di ujung kekuasaannya gugur saat Perang Bubat. Karena saat kejadian di Bubat, putranya -- Niskalawastukancana -- masih kecil, kekuasaan Sunda sementara dipegang oleh Patih Mangkubumi Sang Prabu Bunisora (1357-1371).

Prasasti Kawali di Kabuyutan Astana Gedé, Kawali, Ciamis.

Sapeninggal Prabu Bunisora, kekuasaan kembali lagi ke putra Linggabuana, Niskalawastukancana, yang kemudian memimpin selama 104 tahun (1371-1475). Dari isteri pertama, Nay Ratna Sarkati, ia mempunyai putera Sang Haliwungan (Prabu Susuktunggal), yang diberi kekuasaan bawahan di daerah sebelah barat Citarum (daerah asal Sunda). Prabu Susuktunggal yang berkuasa dari Pakuan Pajajaran, membangun pusat pemerintahan ini dengan mendirikan keraton Sri Bima Punta Narayana Madura Suradipati. Pemerintahannya terbilang lama (1382-1482), sebab sudah dimulai saat ayahnya masih berkuasa di daerah timur. Dari Nay Ratna Mayangsari, istrinya yang kedua, ia mempunyai putera Ningratkancana (Prabu Déwaniskala), yang meneruskan kekuasaan ayahnya di daerah Galuh (1475-1482).

Susuktunggal dan Ningratkancana menyatukan ahli warisnya dengan menikahkan Jayadéwata (putra Ningratkancana) dengan Ambetkasih (putra Susuktunggal). Tahun 1482, kekuasaan Sunda dan Galuh disatukan lagi oleh Jayadéwata, yang bergelar Sri Baduga Maharaja. Sapeninggal Jayadéwata, kekuasaan Sunda-Galuh turun ke putranya, Prabu Surawisésa (1521-1535), kemudian Prabu Déwatabuanawisésa (1535-1543), Prabu Sakti (1543-1551), Prabu Nilakéndra (1551-1567), serta Prabu Ragamulya atau Prabu Suryakancana (1567-1579). Prabu Suryakancana ini merupakan pemimpin kerajaan Sunda-Galuh yang terakhir, sebab setelah beberapa kali diserang oleh pasukan Maulana Yusuf dari Kesultanan Banten, mengakibatkan kekuasaan Prabu Surya Kancana dan Kerajaan Pajajaran runtuh.

Berdiriya kerajaan Sunda di Nusantara

Menurut Naskah Wangsakerta dari Cirebon, sebelum berdiri sebagai kerajaan yang mandiri, Sunda merupakan bawahan Tarumanagara. Raja Tarumanagara yang terakhir, Sri Maharaja Linggawarman Atmahariwangsa Panunggalan Tirthabumi (memerintah hanya selama tiga tahun, 666-669 M), menikah dengan Déwi Ganggasari dari Indraprahasta. Dari Ganggasari, beliau memiliki dua anak, yang keduanya perempuan. Déwi Manasih, putri sulungnya, menikah dengan Tarusbawa dari Sunda, sedangkan yang kedua, Sobakancana, menikah dengan Dapuntahyang Sri Janayasa, yang selanjutnya mendirikan kerajaan Sriwijaya. Setelah Linggawarman meninggal, kekuasaan Tarumanagara turun kepada menantunya, Tarusbawa. 

Hal ini menyebabkan penguasa Galuh, Wretikandayun (612-702) memberontak, melepaskan diri dari Tarumanagara, serta mendirikan Kerajaan Galuh yang mandiri. Tarusbawa juga menginginkan melanjutkan kerajaan Tarumanagara, dan selanjutnya memindahkan kekuasaannya ke Sunda, di hulu sungai Cipakancilan dimana di daerah tersebut sungai Ciliwung dan sungai Cisadane berdekatan dan berjajar, dekat Bogor saat ini. Sedangkan Tarumanagara diubah menjadi bawahannya. Beliau dinobatkan sebagai raja Sunda pada hari Radite Pon, 9 Suklapaksa, bulan Yista, tahun 519 Saka (kira-kira 18 Mei 669 M). Sunda dan Galuh ini berbatasan, dengan batas kerajaanya yaitu sungai Citarum (Sunda di sebelah barat, Galuh di sebelah timur).

Catatan sejarah dari Cina tentang Kerajaan Sunda

Menurut F. Hirt dan WW Rockhill, ada sumber Cina tertentu mengenai Kerajaan Sunda. Pada saat Dinasti Sung Selatan, inspektur perdagangan dengan negara-negara asing, Zhao Rugua mengumpulkan laporan dari para pelaut dan pedagang yang benar-benar mengunjungi negara-negara asing. Dalam laporannya tentang negara Jauh, Zhufan Zhi, yang ditulis tahun 1225, menyebutkan pelabuhan di "Sin-t'o". Zhao melaporkan bahwa:

"Orang-oarang tinggal di sepanjang pantai. Orang-orang tersebut bekerja dalam bidang pertanian, rumah-rumah mereka dibangun diatas tiang (rumah panggung) dan dengan atap jerami dengan daun pohon kelapa dan dinding-dindingnya dibuat dengan papan kayu yang diikat dengan rotan. Laki-laki dan perempuan membungkus pinggangnya dengan sepotong kain katun, dan memotong rambut mereka sampai panjangnya setengah inci. Lada yang tumbuh di bukit (negeri ini) bijinya kecil, tetapi berat dan lebih tinggi kualitasnya dari Ta-pan (Tuban, Jawa Timur). Negara ini menghasilkan labu, tebu, telur kacang dan tanaman."

Buku perjalanan Cina Shunfeng xiangsong dari sekitar 1430 mengatakan :

"Dalam perjalanan ke arah timur dari Shun-t'a, sepanjang pantai utara Jawa, kapal dikemudikan 97 1/2 derajat selama tiga jam untuk mencapai Kalapa, mereka kemudian mengikuti pantai (melewati Tanjung Indramayu), akhirnya dikemudikan 187 derajat selama empat jam untuk mencapai Cirebon. Kapal dari Banten berjalan ke arah timur sepanjang pantai utara Jawa, melewati Kalapa, melewati Indramayu, melewati Cirebon."

Catatan sejarah dari Eropa

Laporan Eropa berasal dari periode berikutnya menjelang jatuhnya Kerajaan Sunda oleh kekuatan Kesultanan Banten. Salah satu penjelajah itu adalah Tomé Pires dari Portugal. Dalam bukunya Suma Oriental (1513 - 1515) ia menulis bahwa:

"Beberapa orang menegaskan bahwa kerajaan Sunda luasnya setengah dari seluruh pulau Jawa; sebagian lagi mengatakan bahwa Kerajaan Sunda luasnya sepertiga dari pulau Jawa dan ditambah seperdelapannya."

Tulisan ini yang membawa kerancuan, dengan menyatakan bahwa kerajaan Sunda meliputi "sepertiga dari pulau Jawa", sedangkan pada masa Pires Sunda masih mengacu ke pelabuhan yang sekarang namanya Banten.

Historiografi Kerajaan Sunda Nusantara

Rujukan awal nama Sunda sebagai sebuah kerajaan tertulis dalam Prasasti Kebon Kopi II tahun 458 Saka (536 Masehi). Prasasti itu ditulis dalam aksara Kawi, namun, bahasa yang digunakan adalah bahasa Melayu Kuno. Prasasti ini terjemahannya sebagai berikut:

Batu peringatan ini adalah ucapan Rakryan Juru Pangambat, pada tahun 458 Saka, bahwa tatanan pemerintah dikembalikan kepada kekuasaan raja Sunda.

Beberapa orang berpendapat bahwa tahun prasasti tersebut harus dibaca sebagai 854 Saka (932 Masehi) karena tidak mungkin Kerajaan Sunda telah ada pada tahun 536 AD, di era Kerajaan Tarumanagara (358-669 AD ).

Rujukan lainnya kerajaan Sunda adalah Prasasti Sanghyang Tapak yang terdiri dari 40 baris yang ditulis pada 4 buah batu. Empat batu ini ditemukan di tepi sungai Cicatih di Cibadak, Sukabumi. Prasasti-prasasti tersebut ditulis dalam bahasa Kawi. Sekarang keempat prasasti tersebut disimpan di Museum Nasional Jakarta, dengan kode D 73 (Cicatih), D 96, D 97 dan D 98. Isi prasasti (menurut Pleyte):

Perdamaian dan kesejahteraan. Pada tahun Saka 952 (1030 M), bulan Kartika pada hari 12 pada bagian terang, hari Hariang, Kaliwon, hari pertama, wuku Tambir. Hari ini adalah hari ketika raja Sunda Maharaja Sri Jayabupati Jayamanahen Wisnumurti Samarawijaya 

Sakalabuwanamandaleswaranindita Haro Gowardhana Wikramattunggadewa, membuat tanda pada bagian timur Sanghiyang Tapak ini. Dibuat oleh Sri Jayabupati Raja Sunda. Dan tidak ada seorang pun yang diperbolehkan untuk melanggar aturan ini. Dalam bagian sungai dilarang menangkap ikan, di daerah suci Sanghyang Tapak dekat sumber sungai. Sampai perbatasan Sanghyang Tapak ditandai oleh dua pohon besar. Jadi tulisan ini dibuat, ditegakkan dengan sumpah. Siapa pun yang melanggar aturan ini akan dihukum oleh makhluk halus, mati dengan cara mengerikan seperti otaknya disedot, darahnya diminum, usus dihancurkan, dan dada dibelah dua.

Tanggal prasasti Jayabupati diperkirakan 11 Oktober 1030. Menurut Pustaka Nusantara, Parwa III sarga 1, Sri Jayabupati memerintah selama 12 tahun (952-964) saka (1030 - 1042AD).

Wilayah kekuasaan Kerajaan Sunda

Berdasarkan naskah kuno primer Bujangga Manik (yang menceriterakan perjalanan Bujangga Manik, seorang pendeta Hindu Sunda yang mengunjungi tempat-tempat suci agama Hindu di Pulau Jawa dan Bali pada awal abad ke-16), yang saat ini disimpan pada Perpustakaan Boedlian, Oxford University, Inggris sejak tahun 1627), batas Kerajaan Sunda di sebelah timur adalah Ci Pamali ("Sungai Pamali", sekarang disebut sebagai Kali Brebes) dan Ci Serayu (yang saat ini disebut Kali Serayu) di Provinsi Jawa Tengah.

Menurut Naskah Wangsakerta, wilayah Kerajaan Sunda mencakup juga daerah yang saat ini menjadi Provinsi Lampung melalui pernikahan antara keluarga Kerajaan Sunda dan Lampung. Lampung dipisahkan dari bagian lain kerajaan Sunda oleh Selat Sunda.

Kerajaan Sunda adalah kerajaan yang pernah ada antara tahun 932

Kerajaan Sunda adalah kerajaan yang pernah ada antara tahun 932 dan 1579 Masehi di bagian Barat pulau Jawa (provinsi Banten, Jakarta, dan Jawa Barat sekarang).

Etimologi

Sampai abad ke-16, toponim (nama tempat) "Sunda" menunjuk kepada daerah pesisir bagian barat pulau Jawa, lebih tepatnya di daerah Banten. Di awal abad ke-13, penulis Zhao Rugua dari Tiongkok menamakan "Sin-t'o" suatu kota dan daerah sekitarnya yang menghasilkan lada. Karena pada masa itu yang menghasilkan lada hanya daerah Banten, maka kini semua pakar sejarah sepakat bahwa "Sunda" tersebut itu Banten. Di sekitar tahun 1500, Shungfeng xiangsong, sebuah buku perjalanan dari Tiongkok, memakai kedua nama "Wan-tan" dan "Shun-t'a" untuk kota Banten. Di masa yang sama dua penulis Arab, Ibn Majid dan Sulaiman, menamakan "Sunda" pelabuhan yang letaknya paling barat di pantai utara pulau Jawa, yang hanya dapat mengacu ke Banten. Peta Portugis yang paling lama mengenai kawasan ini menyebut "Sunda" daerah muara sungai yang letaknya di bagian barat pantai utara Jawa. Naskah Portugis paling sering menamakan "Sunda", kadang-kadang "Bantam" bahkan "Sunda-Bantam", kota Banten sekarang.

Diperkirakan adalah orang Portugis yang pertama menimbulkan kerancuan dengan menamakan "Sunda" keseluruhan Jawa Barat[1]. Namun di akhir abad ke-16 orang Belanda meluruskan kerancuan ini. Setelah dalam perjalanan pertamanya ke Nusantara mendapat keterangan lebih banyak tentang Banten, mereka menulis bahwa "Sunda adalah pelabuhan Banten dengan bagian pulau Jawa yang paling di barat di mana lada tumbuh". Gambar ini sama dengan apa yang ditulis Zhao Rugua hampir 400 tahun sebelumnya.

Prasasti Kebonkopi II, yang ditemukan dekat Bogor dan ditulis dalam bahasa Melayu, mencatat bahwa tahun 932, seorang "raja Sunda" menduduki kembali tahtanya. Penggunaan bahasa Melayu ini menunjukkan pengaruh kerajaan Sriwijaya.

Menurut Prasasti Sanghyang Tapak yang berangka tahun 952 saka (1030 M), pusat kerajaan Sunda di bawah Maharaja Jayabupati, dinyatakan terletak di sekitar Cicatih dekat Cibadak, di pedalaman Jawa Barat, bukan di pesisir lagi.

Menurut naskah Wangsakerta, naskah yang diragukan keasliannya, Sunda merupakan kerajaan yang berdiri menggantikan kerajaan Tarumanagara. Kerajaan Sunda didirikan oleh Tarusbawa pada tahun 591 Saka Sunda (669 M). Menurut sumber sejarah primer yang berasal dari abad ke-16 ini, kerajaan ini merupakan suatu kerajaan yang meliputi wilayah yang sekarang menjadi Provinsi Banten, Jakarta, Provinsi Jawa Barat , dan bagian barat Provinsi Jawa Tengah. Namun naskah ini diragukan sebagai sumber sejarah.

Gran Turismo Review

A collective holy sh*t has probably dropped from every last one of you guys reading this. Or maybe not. Yes, you're looking at a Gran Turismo review that has scored, for the first time ever, nowhere near the practically perfect grades we've graced this franchise with since day one. Okay, maybe some of you have read some of the other reviews out there and are aware that something has gone really wrong. Well, first off, allow me to preface the remainder of this review by stating that Gran Turismo for the PSP has, allegedly, been in development for five years. I say allegedly, because I'm certain that the development cycle for the game had been temporarily sidelined numerous times in between all of the work Polyphony had to do for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3. Gran Turismo's development was most certainly not a continuous effort of five years...and unfortunately, it shows.

Now, after re-reading this review, it definitely comes off harsh, but with good reason. Gran Turismo PSP is a flawed game. But, on the other hand, I still had a lot of fun with it, as at its core, GT PSP is still very enjoyable, accessible, and fun game. I put in tons and tons of hours into the game just making money and collecting cars, which is one of the purposes of GT PSP. Many of these cars are transferable, allowing you to sync GT PSP to GT5 and transfer cars you've bought or won into your PS3 game. Again, GT PSP is a very fun game. But a "fully specced Gran Turismo", Kazunori Yamauchi said, this is not.

The first major disappointment came when I realized the tiny little size of the game file Sony had forwarded me. 937MB? Gran Turismo 2 was a PlayStation 1 game and it boasted two separate discs, essentially making it a game worth 1.2GB. Okay, so I held out hope. So the game boots up, and immediately I run to the dealership to look through the list of amazing cars, only to realize I can only choose between Bugatti, Bentley, Chevy, and Polyphony. "Oh," I said, "Sony must've sent me a demo file accidentally. Oh, those crazy guys, I'll just contact them agai...what? This is normal?" You see, as the days cycle in-game, the dealerships you can browse through change, as do the cars you can buy.

Allow me to explain in a bit more detail. When you boot up the game, you'll have four dealers to access and 100,000 credits to spend on a car, which is a gracious sum. Once you buy a car, you can participate in a few events. As the days roll on in the game, a new set of four dealerships will be made available to you. But, just because you can access a Nissan dealer, doesn't mean you can have the ability to buy any of their cars. No, no. If you don't see a GT-R or a 300ZX TT, you have to wait until the next time Nissan becomes one of the four dealers you can shop at and see if the assortment of cars features the ones you want. Yes, it's that complicated, confusing, and stupid.

Some of you may say, "but Arnold, why didn't you mention this in your GT PSP hands-on preview? Why is this such a shock to you?" Because when I played Gran Turismo PSP a few months ago at a New York City event, I recall being able to sort through a complete listing of every car in the game, through every single make; none of this four dealers only bullcrap. So to see this absolute lunacy on my PSP, in a game I had so long waited for made me livid, quite frankly, as I'm sure you can tell by the tone of this diatribe.

But things get worse, as GT PSP commits the ultimate sin, in my eyes. No customization. Sure, you can enter the game's Quick Tune menu and adjust suspension components such as camber, toe, ride-height, spring rate, and damper, but that leaves the other half of the gearhead spectrum (the straight line guys) alone in the dark. Yes, you can add some horsepower to your car, but you can only do it for drift trial mode. And you're not actually adding any components, you're just increasing a little slider that adds up to 20% more power to the car you're in.

Honestly, I could sit here and ramble about how utterly stupid this is. GT has always been about taking a car and making it faster, in some cases, absurdly fast. I've spent dozens and dozens of hours in GT4 just taking random cars that I like in real life, buy every little component for them to see just how much of a difference it makes around a specific track and in the 1/4 mile. GT PSP has taken all of that away from me, and has left me with an open-ended single-player mode that allows me to choose a car, track, set the number of laps (1-120) and race on it against three others. Yes, the total number of cars per track is not eight or even six, it's four, including you. And once you win a race, you earn prize money, and then you have the ability of racing that same track three more times. You see, the first time you race, you race it on an easy difficulty rank called D. Once you win, you can race against C-rank racers, then B, and then A.

The game boasts a total of 800 cars, but only 200-250 of those are actually unique models. And there are 35 tracks, with a total of 70 different layouts and variations. Unfortunately, there are some key tracks missing, most importantly, both Special Stage Route 5 and 11, series staples. I've also noticed that no aesthetic changes have been made to real life tracks such as New York City, to reflect their modern day changes. For example, the New York City track in GT4 depicted an area of Manhattan known as Columbus Circle (the roundabout portion), back when GT4 was developed and released, the area was under a lot of construction, so understandably the in-game track reflects that with cranes and such all around the area. But, five years later, Columbus Circle is brimming with beauty as the Time Warner building has been long finished...but unfortunately, the in-game track shows none of that detail, and instead looks precisely as it did in GT4. This tells me someone was forced to take away Polyphony's attention to detail and, in turn, forced to maybe...rush the game in time for the PSP Go launch?

I'm not quite done, yet, though. You see, beyond the standard races are also the Driving Challenges, which are nothing more than License Tests in disguise, and are not a requisite here. Although, taking 15 minutes and completing a few set of challenges will unlock the custom soundtrack feature, and they are strangely addictive, as well. Moreover, they're good for accumulating a ton of money in a relatively short time-span. And if you really dig the challenges, upon completing them, the game will reward you with a whole new bonus set.

Lastly, the multiplayer here is...well, disappointing. There is no online to speak of. None. Not even a meager two player battle. You're limited to four-player Ad-hoc, which is great and all, but finding someone, let alone three others, with a PSP and a copy of the game directly next to you is very unlikely. And I highly doubt you'll be making an event on Facebook inviting any would-be competitors to a multiplayer session at your house. Beyond a few new tracks and Professional physics loosely based on GT5's, Polyphony added little-to-nothing to make this GT feel fresher and revised.

Visually, the game looks really great. It's running at 60 frames per second and boasts some really nice car models for a handheld title. It's not quite Gran Turismo 4 caliber stuff, but if the framerate was brought down to 30, it probably could've been. Regardless, beyond the slick car models and super framerate, do lie some visual issues. Seams break up and textures and polygons all over the screen frequently, and it's more noticeable in some stages than others. These seams are white lines that run across various parts of the stages, flickering about. Also, there is no light emitting from the brake-lights of cars, as it's just a red and flat texture that gets drawn on when you hit the brakes...cheap. Moreover, the rims are two-dimensional and paper-flat when in a race, which I thought ended with GT4, but I guess PD couldn't get even that going on the PSP. Again, all in all, this is a very good looking game, but it does fall short in a lot of places I didn't expect it to, and it kind of takes a lot away from the overall look and feel. Shame.

The audio is acceptable, and you can hear that Polyphony put in a decent amount of work into the sound, especially when the PSP is running through an external speaker of some sort. The standard soundtrack is pretty good stuff, but the ability of a custom soundtrack is what I love most. Sound effects such as tires screeching and crashes are pulled right out of GT4, which is good and bad. It's good since they weren't that bad sounding to begin with. But it's bad because, well, not being bad doesn't mean they couldn't be improved on or made to sound a bit newer or fresher. Also, I noticed that a lot of the cars don't quite sound like their actual counterparts, as their engine and exhaust notes don't roar like they should - I mean honestly, a Ferrari Enzo sounds like a wind-up car in the game. The American V8s sound burbly and nice, but a lot of cars with defining characteristics in their engine/exhaust notes are missing said characteristics.

As you can see, I'm one of the few critics who isn't annoyed with this game for its lack of an expansive Career mode. Quite frankly, to me, the career is there with the open-ended single-player races. What bothers me is the lack of the fundamentals, the very basic and general things that have made Gran Turismo such a superb game. Yes, the physics are great, yes there's a ton of cars and tracks, and yes, despite all of these drawbacks the game is still quite a bit of fun. But this is a game that could've been perfect, it could've been the epitome of handheld to console ports, but instead it continues the age-old pessimism of handheld iterations of console blockbusters being nothing more than stripped down quick-flings. If there was one brand, one developer, one game franchise to end that stereotype, it should've been PlayStation, it should've been Polyphony, and it should've been Gran Turismo.

Chelsea hierarchy must back me, says manager Andre Villas-Boas

Chelsea manager Andre Villas-Boas says the club's hierarchy should make it clear they back his vision for the Blues' long-term future. Speaking on the day before the club meets Napoli in the Champions League, Villas-Boas insists he is restructuring the club to "sustain" their success.

Villas-Boas maintains that he has the full backing of owner Roman Abramovich. But the Blues boss said: "These words would be more valuable coming from the top. I cannot keep saying them."

Meanwhile, Chelsea have been made aware of the alleged racist abuse of members of their squad when they arrived at the team hotel in Naples.

"If any members of our team or staff are subjected to racist abuse we would find that wholly unacceptable and it would be reflected in our conversations with Uefa," a Chelsea spokesman said.

Villas-Boas has presided over the club's least successful period since Russian billionaire Abramovich took control of the club in 2003, having not won a Premier League game since 14 January.

The West London side currently lie fifth in the top tier, out of the League Cup and facing an FA Cup fifth round replay at St Andrew's after being held 1-1 by Championship side Birmingham City at Stamford Bridge on Saturday.

But, despite having enjoyed just one win in six matches, Villas-Boas has issued a reminder that he is on a 'three-year project' at Stamford Bridge. He has already spent around £76m on seven players in his first season with five of those signings aged under 24.

"In terms of the results this year," added Villas-Boas. "The speculation is normal given the cultural past of this football club, but you have to understand that there's a different perspective now.

"We had a three-year project to change not only the team, but the culture and structure of the club.

"There's a lot we needed to do, a lot of plans. That's why I'm excited about the future.

"Having said that, we have to build a team to win trophies.

"We're no longer in the Carling Cup and don't have a chance to win the title. But we are still confident we can do well in the Champions League and the FA Cup." The club's joint top marksman Daniel Sturridge had insisted earlier in the day that they are not "a divided unit".

"We are a family and we've got a good unit going," the 22-year-old told Chelsea TV. "Maybe we will see that in the next few games."

Ahead of Tuesday night's last 16 first-leg tie against Napoli, Sturridge added: "They have some great individuals, as well as a good team. "But we have the same and we are not going to worry about what they have got.

"We have to go out there with the attitude that they have got to worry about what we have got." Fellow Blues striker Didier Drogba said: "We feel that no one really believes in us.

"We are going to show we deserve to be here. It's a top game and we are going to have to get a good result." Drogba denied that he gave a half-time "team talk" to Chelsea when they were a goal down in Saturday's FA Cup tie against Birmingham before coming back to draw, thanks to a Sturridge header.

"The manager made the speech at half-time," said the Ivory Coast international. "He has leaders in the squad and we are here to help him.

"We wanted to gee the team up at half-time and nothing more." Napoli will have to do without coach Walter Mazzarri, who must serve a two-match touchline ban for pushing over Villarreal's Brazilian striker Nilmar in a touchline spat in the group stages.

Mazzarri predicts that Chelsea's European experience makes the Italian side underdogs. "We will face a team who have played more than 100 Champions League matches," said the 50-year-old Napoli coach.

"We are proud to play this match but I don't want to hear anyone saying we are the favourite. We can find a result only if we play a great match.

"All the team has to play not only a special game, but the perfect game. It will be important for us that Chelsea will not score any goals at the Stadio San Paolo."

New-look Knicks a work in progress as team falls in Carmelo's return

NEW YORK -- Two and a half weeks ago, the Knicks and Nets clashed in Madison Square Garden. It was a meeting between the 10th and 11th best teams in the East, two floundering franchises seemingly destined for failure. The Knicks had lost of 11 of 13 games when Jeremy Lin, a twice-released point guard out of Harvard, unassumingly checked into the action.

The rest is history. Lin scored 25 points in that Feb. 4 game to spark a 99-92 victory over New Jersey. He averaged 25 points and 9.5 assists over his next eight starts, improbably lifting the Knicks to .500. His story captivated the world -- a refreshingly genuine nobody-believed-in-me tale that dominated headlines from Brooklyn to Beijing.

On Monday, however, that script was flipped. Despite Lin's best efforts (21 points, nine assists, seven rebounds), the Nets upset the surging Knicks at home, 100-92. And with it, New York's roller coaster of a home stand (beat Sacramento, lost to New Orleans, beat Dallas, lost to New Jersey) took another surprising twist.

"The whole team was out of sync," said Knicks coach Mike D'Antoni. "We lost what we were doing the last eight or nine games."

That much was clear, with the Knicks displaying a carelessness that was absent against the defending champ Mavericks. It prompts the inevitable question: Will the newfound allegiance between Lin and Carmelo Anthony -- who scored just 11 points in his first game back since suffering a strained groin on Feb. 6 -- develop into the perfect union that New York so fiercely hopes?

"Any time you have new players coming back, your identity as a team is going to change," said Lin. "That's what we need to figure out, what our identity is gonna be."

At times, the nightmares concocted by talking heads -- issues with spacing; a lack of offensive concentration -- were realized. After racing to a 13-3 lead to open the game, the Knicks were outscored 39-20 over the next 14:41, shooting a paltry 8 of 24 during that span. Anthony was particularly sloppy, finishing with a game-high six turnovers, three more than the error-prone Lin.

The most representative play occurred with 6:47 left in the third quarter. Anthony tried to juke DeShawn Stevenson, attempting a stop-and-go toward the basket. The ball slipped out of his hands and sailed harmlessly out of bounds. Whether it was a result of a lay-off or him pressing, he, and the Knicks, appeared discernibly flat.

"I felt a little rusty," said Anthony. "I wasn't trying to overdo it. Get this game under my belt."

Of course, credit is due to the Nets. The vilified Kris Humphries notched another double-double (finishing with 14 points and 14 rebounds), and Deron Williams was unstoppable. He netted a game-high 38 points, shot a prolific 8-of-14 from distance -- including three in a span of 45 seconds -- and nearly outscored the Knicks by himself (18 to 22) in the third quarter. He cemented his reputation as one of the league's best point guards.

"Williams played out of his mind tonight," said Amar'e Stoudemire.

Williams also left a friendly reminder for Lin: The second time around, the league won't come so easy.

"I think he's becoming a marked man a little bit," said D'Antoni. "But I think we make too much out of individual matchups."

After electrifying the Garden on Sunday, the Knicks lulled it to sleep. And with a grueling schedule on the horizon -- 10 of their next 14 opponents boast winning records -- things are about to get undoubtedly tougher.

"We have to get some things sorted out," said D'Antoni. "We have to figure out the type of team we have."

But here's thing about this Knicks' season, unlike any in recent memory: Each game seems to take on colossal significance. Each loss forebodes future doom. Each win amplifies expectations. Similar to the Heat last season, the Lin-era Knicks have become the definitive story in sports. They're under a media microscope: Anything -- good or bad -- seems possible.

But we only know so much. Lin remains a revelation, his heroics outweighing his turnovers. Anthony and Stoudemire can still produce like All-Stars, and New York's role players (Steve Novak, Tyson Chandler, Landry Fields, J.R. Smith) are learning to adjust. The maturation period will take time and growing pains.

Monday's loss at Madison Square Garden was part of that process. And while certainly disappointing, it's not catastrophic.

"Obviously we're not happy with how it went," said Lin. "But sometimes you need to go through times likes these to become a better team."

In the back wall of the Knicks' locker room, adjacent to a massive plasma TV, a dry-erase board lists the team's season notes. Each bullet is penned in blue, emphasizing fundamentals stressed since AAU. But above the X's and O's, a separate message is written in caps: Keep Building Our Great Team Chemistry.

That's the test moving forward. Anthony is back. Baron Davis is back (he scored three points in 9:40 of playing time). Now it's up to the Knicks -- and their transcendent point guard -- to continue defying the odds.

If nothing else, Melo is fully on board.

"I want Jeremy to have the ball," he said. "I want him to create for me. I want him to create for Amar'e. There are gonna be times where I'm the distributor, but for the most part, I want Jeremy having the ball in his hands."

McLaren extend support for young driver Magnussen

McLaren have confirmed that Kevin Magnussen will undertake additional challenges over the coming year, after he reached the next stage of the British team’s young driver programme. Magnussen will carry out work in McLaren’s simulator and will also be given the opportunity to drive the MP4-27 during this year’s young driver test.

“I’m really pleased by this new agreement with Vodafone McLaren Mercedes,” said the 19 year-old. “The team has shown great faith in me so far and I feel that this is an important step in my career.

"F1 is a highly pressured, data-driven environment, and anyone who wants to get there and succeed within it has to master all the technical aspects of the discipline. This is a great opportunity and I look forward to working with the team and playing a part in Vodafone McLaren Mercedes’ future.”

Magnussen is the son of former McLaren test and race driver Jan Magnussen. Last year he finished runner-up in the British Formula Three championship, claiming eight pole positions and winning seven races. In 2012 he will combine his role at McLaren with a full-time drive in World Series by Renault.

“Racing is the core business of Vodafone McLaren Mercedes,” concluded team principal Martin Whitmarsh. “By enabling talented drivers to fulfil their potential, our Driver Development Programme is a strategic investment in the future of that business and the sport as a whole.

"We’ve been delighted by Kevin’s progress, aptitude and work ethic thus far. The time was right for him to take the next step and we look forward to helping him gain the experience he requires.”

The young Danish driver joined the entry level of the team’s young driver programme back in 2010.

Speedweeks Open Strong for Nascar at Daytona

DAYTONA BEACH, Fla. - Kyle Busch twice appeared destined to destroy his race car, and twice used breathtaking saves to keep on running around Daytona International Speedway.

He probably shouldn't have been in position to race with the leaders. Yet there he was, bearing down on the finish line with a shot at winning Saturday night's exhibition Budweiser Shootout, and with a slingshot pass on the outside of defending NASCAR champion Tony Stewart, Busch pulled off a miraculous win in the first event of 2012.

Not too shabby of a start to the season.

NASCAR has every right to be giddy about Sunday's season-opening Daytona 500, a pivotal race in sparking interest at the start of a very long season. A rain-shortened event in 2009 set the tone for a rocky year, and two lengthy delays to fix a pesky pothole in the track surface impacted the 2010 season.

Then came Trevor Bayne's upset victory last year, and NASCAR never looked back. The 2011 season ranked among the best in years, and ended with a phenomenal race between Stewart and Carl Edwards for the Sprint Cup championship. The two ended the season tied in the standings, with the title going to Stewart on a tiebreaker.

All that momentum meant NASCAR could tweak very little during the offseason. Why mess with a good thing, right?

Well, not everything was sunshine and roses.

NASCAR officials said earlier this month that more than 80 percent of fans polled "hated" the two-car tandem style of racing that had taken over at Daytona and Talladega. Such a strong opinion forced NASCAR to spend a significant chunk of the offseason tinkering with the rules package in an effort to recreate pack racing before the Feb. 26 opener.

The Shootout proved NASCAR made the right moves, and the drivers seemed overwhelmingly in favor of the racing.

"It's pretty wild and crazy, but, I mean, I like this better than what we had last year, definitely," said four-time champion Jeff Gordon, who rolled his car several times and wound up on his roof for what he said was the first time in his NASCAR career.

Gordon's night ended seconds after he nudged Busch, triggering a chain-reaction crash that also led to Busch's second save of the race. It was one of three multicar crashes — the wrecks collected 23 total cars, set up a green-white-checkered overtime finish and resulted in the closest finish in race history. Busch's margin of victory was a mere 0.013 seconds, and his driving awed his competitors.

"I was right behind him ... and he had to catch it three times before he saved it," Stewart said. "When you get 3,400 pounds moving like that, to catch it one time was pretty big. To get away from him and catch it a second time was big. The third time was big. That's three big moments in one corner. He just never quit driving it.

"There's a lot of guys that wouldn't have caught that. I'm sitting there and the green is still out. I'm going, 'Man, that's the coolest save I've seen in a long time.'"

It was a redemption of sorts for Busch, who had to fight hard to keep his sponsors intact at the end of last season. Suspended by NASCAR for intentionally wrecking Ron Hornaday Jr. in a Truck Series race at Texas, primary sponsor M&M's told Joe Gibbs Racing it didn't want Busch in its car the final two races of the year.

His career was at a crossroads, and Busch worked hard during the offseason to repair his reputation. He referenced M&M's, which was back on his car for the first time since the company pulled itself off the No. 18 Toyota for the final two races of last season, during his Victory Lane celebration.

"First race back in the M&M's car, and we're back in Victory Lane. Pretty cool," Busch said.

There are other feel-good stories heading into NASCAR's biggest race of the year.

• Danica Patrick will make her Daytona 500 debut, and the series is thrilled she's made the full-time move to NASCAR.
• Dale Earnhardt Jr., NASCAR's most popular driver, had his best season in five years in 2011 and is excited about his chances in the Daytona 500.

"I like this kind of racing better. At least I know what to expect," Earnhardt said. "I feel like I have a better chance with this style than I did last year for damn sure."

• Edwards bounced back from his loss to Stewart in the title race by winning the pole for the Daytona 500.
• There's already some controversy, as the car for five-time series champion Jimmie Johnson failed inspection before it ever got on the track. Crew chief Chad Knaus will likely be penalized after the Daytona 500.

It's all setting the stage for Sunday, which is shaping up to be a strong opener for NASCAR. The race probably won't be 500 miles of three-wide racing, but if it's anything close to the Shootout, it's bound to be entertaining.

Uga Wangsit Prabu Siliwangi

Saur Prabu Siliwangi ka balad Pajajaran anu milu mundur dina sateuacana ngahiang: Lalakon urang ngan nepi ka poé ieu, najan dia kabéhan ka ngaing pada satia! Tapi ngaing henteu meunang mawa dia pipilueun, ngilu hirup jadi balangsak, ngilu rudin bari lapar. Dia mudu marilih, pikeun hirup ka hareupna, supaya engké jagana, jembar senang sugih mukti, bisa ngadegkeun deui Pajajaran! Lain Pajajaran nu kiwari, tapi Pajajaran anu anyar, nu ngadegna digeuingkeun ku obah jaman! Pilih! ngaing moal ngahalang-halang. Sabab pikeun ngaing, hanteu pantes jadi Raja, anu somah sakabéhna, lapar baé jeung balangsak.

Daréngékeun! Nu dék tetep ngilu jeung ngaing, geura misah ka beulah kidul! Anu hayang balik deui ka dayeuh nu ditinggalkeun, geura misah ka beulah kalér! Anu dék kumawula ka nu keur jaya, geura misah ka beulah wétan! Anu moal milu ka saha-saha, geura misah ka beulah kulon!

Daréngékeun! Dia nu di beulah wétan, masing nyaraho: Kajayaan milu jeung dia! Nya turunan dia nu engkéna bakal maréntah ka dulur jeung ka batur. Tapi masing nyaraho, arinyana bakal kamalinaan. Engkéna bakal aya babalesna. Jig geura narindak!

Dia nu di beulah kulon! Papay ku dia lacak Ki Santang! Sabab engkéna, turunan dia jadi panggeuing ka dulur jeung ka batur. Ka batur urut salembur, ka dulur anu nyorang saayunan ka sakabéh nu rancagé di haténa. Engké jaga, mun tengah peuting, ti gunung Halimun kadéngé sora tutunggulan, tah éta tandana; saturunan dia disambat ku nu dék kawin di Lebak Cawéné. Ulah sina talangké, sabab talaga bakal bedah! Jig geura narindak! Tapi ulah ngalieuk ka tukang!

Dia nu marisah ka beulah kalér, daréngékeun! Dayeuh ku dia moal kasampak. Nu ka sampak ngan ukur tegal baladaheun. Turunan dia, lolobana bakal jadi somah. Mun aya nu jadi pangkat, tapi moal boga kakawasaan. Arinyana engké jaga, bakal ka seundeuhan batur. Loba batur ti nu anggang, tapi batur anu nyusahkeun. Sing waspada!

Sakabéh turunan dia ku ngaing bakal dilanglang. Tapi, ngan di waktu anu perelu.

Ngaing bakal datang deui, nulungan nu barutuh, mantuan anu sarusah, tapi ngan nu hadé laku-lampahna. Mun ngaing datang moal kadeuleu; mun ngaing nyarita moal kadéngé. Mémang ngaing bakal datang. Tapi ngan ka nu rancagé haténa, ka nu weruh di semu anu saéstu, anu ngarti kana wangi anu sajati jeung nu surti lantip pikirna, nu hadé laku lampahna. Mun ngaing datang; teu ngarupa teu nyawara, tapi méré céré ku wawangi. Ti mimiti poé ieu, Pajajaran leungit ti alam hirup. Leungit dayeuhna, leungit nagarana. Pajajaran moal ninggalkeun tapak, jaba ti ngaran pikeun nu mapay. Sabab bukti anu kari, bakal réa nu malungkir! Tapi engké jaga bakal aya nu nyoba-nyoba, supaya anu laleungit kapanggih deui. Nya bisa, ngan mapayna kudu maké amparan. Tapi anu marapayna loba nu arieu-aing pang pinterna. Mudu arédan heula.

Engké bakal réa nu kapanggih, sabagian-sabagian. Sabab kaburu dilarang ku nu disebut Raja Panyelang! Aya nu wani ngoréhan terus terus, teu ngahiding ka panglarang; ngoréhan bari ngalawan, ngalawan sabari seuri. Nyaéta budak angon; imahna di birit leuwi, pantona batu satangtungeun, kahieuman ku handeuleum, karimbunan ku hanjuang. Ari ngangonna? Lain kebo lain embé, lain méong lain banténg, tapi kalakay jeung tutunggul. Inyana jongjon ngorehan, ngumpulkeun anu kapanggih. Sabagian disumputkeun, sabab acan wayah ngalalakonkeun. Engke mun geus wayah jeung mangsana, baris loba nu kabuka jeung raréang ménta dilalakonkeun. Tapi, mudu ngalaman loba lalakon, anggeus nyorang: undur jaman datang jaman, saban jaman mawa lalakon. Lilana saban jaman, sarua jeung waktuna nyukma, ngusumah jeung nitis, laju nitis dipinda sukma.

Daréngékeun! Nu kiwari ngamusuhan urang, jaradi rajana ngan bakal nepi mangsa: tanah bugel sisi Cibantaeun dijieun kandang kebo dongkol. Tah di dinya, sanagara bakal jadi sampalan, sampalan kebo barulé, nu diangon ku jalma jangkung nu tutunjuk di alun-alun. Ti harita, raja-raja dibelenggu. Kebo bulé nyekel bubuntut, turunan urang narik waluku, ngan narikna henteu karasa, sabab murah jaman seubeuh hakan.

Ti dinya, waluku ditumpakan kunyuk; laju turunan urang aya nu lilir, tapi lilirna cara nu kara hudang tina ngimpi. Ti nu laleungit, tambah loba nu manggihna. Tapi loba nu pahili, aya kabawa nu lain mudu diala! Turunan urang loba nu hanteu engeuh, yén jaman ganti lalakon ! Ti dinya gehger sanagara. Panto nutup di buburak ku nu ngaranteur pamuka jalan; tapi jalan nu pasingsal!

Nu tutunjuk nyumput jauh; alun-alun jadi suwung, kebo bulé kalalabur; laju sampalan nu diranjah monyét! Turunan urang ngareunah seuri, tapi seuri teu anggeus, sabab kaburu: warung béak ku monyét, sawah béak ku monyét, leuit béak ku monyét, kebon béak ku monyét, sawah béak ku monyét, cawéné rareuneuh ku monyét. Sagala-gala diranjah ku monyét. Turunan urang sieun ku nu niru-niru monyét. Panarat dicekel ku monyet bari diuk dina bubuntut. Walukuna ditarik ku turunan urang keneh.

Loba nu paraeh kalaparan. ti dinya, turunan urang ngarep-ngarep pelak jagong, sabari nyanyahoanan maresék caturangga. Hanteu arengeuh, yén jaman geus ganti deui lalakon.

Laju hawar-hawar, ti tungtung sagara kalér ngaguruh ngagulugur, galudra megarkeun endog. Génjlong saamparan jagat! Ari di urang ? Ramé ku nu mangpring. Pangpring sabuluh-buluh gading. Monyét ngumpul ting rumpuyuk. Laju ngamuk turunan urang; ngamukna teu jeung aturan. loba nu paraéh teu boga dosa. Puguh musuh, dijieun batur; puguh batur disebut musuh. Ngadak-ngadak loba nu pangkat nu maréntah cara nu édan, nu bingung tambah baringung; barudak satepak jaradi bapa. nu ngaramuk tambah rosa; ngamukna teu ngilik bulu. Nu barodas dibuburak, nu harideung disieuh-sieuh. Mani sahéng buana urang, sabab nu ngaramuk, henteu beda tina tawon, dipaléngpéng keuna sayangna. Sanusa dijieun jagal. Tapi, kaburu aya nu nyapih; nu nyapihna urang sabrang.

Laju ngadeg deui raja, asalna jalma biasa. Tapi mémang titisan raja. Titisan raja baheula jeung biangna hiji putri pulo Dewata. da puguh titisan raja; raja anyar hésé apes ku rogahala! Ti harita, ganti deui jaman. Ganti jaman ganti lakon! Iraha? Hanteu lila, anggeus témbong bulan ti beurang, disusul kaliwatan ku béntang caang ngagenclang. Di urut nagara urang, ngadeg deui karajaan. Karajaan di jeroeun karajaan jeung rajana lain teureuh Pajajaran.

Laju aya deui raja, tapi raja, raja buta nu ngadegkeun lawang teu beunang dibuka, nangtungkeun panto teu beunang ditutup; nyieun pancuran di tengah jalan, miara heulang dina caringin, da raja buta! Lain buta duruwiksa, tapi buta henteu neuleu, buaya eujeung ajag, ucing garong eujeung monyét ngarowotan somah nu susah. Sakalina aya nu wani ngageuing; nu diporog mah lain satona, tapi jelema anu ngélingan.

Mingkin hareup mingkin hareup, loba buta nu baruta, naritah deui nyembah berhala. Laju bubuntut salah nu ngatur, panarat pabeulit dina cacadan; da nu ngawalukuna lain jalma tukang tani. Nya karuhan: taraté hépé sawaréh, kembang kapas hapa buahna; buah paré loba nu teu asup kana aseupan............................. Da bonganan, nu ngebonna tukang barohong; nu tanina ngan wungkul jangji; nu palinter loba teuing, ngan pinterna kabalinger.

Ti dinya datang budak janggotan. Datangna sajamang hideung bari nyorén kanéron butut, ngageuingkeun nu keur sasar, ngélingan nu keur paroho. Tapi henteu diwararo! Da pinterna kabalinger, hayang meunang sorangan. Arinyana teu areungeuh, langit anggeus semu beureum, haseup ngebul tina pirunan. Boro-boro dék ngawaro, malah budak nu janggotan, ku arinyana ditéwak diasupkeun ka pangbérokan. Laju arinyana ngawut-ngawut dapur batur, majarkeun néangan musuh; padahal arinyana nyiar-nyiar pimusuheun.

Sing waspada! Sabab engké arinyana, bakal nyaram Pajajaran didongéngkeun. Sabab sarieuneun kanyahoan, saenyana arinyana anu jadi gara-gara sagala jadi dangdarat. Buta-buta nu baruta; mingkin hareup mingkin bedegong, ngaleuwihan kebo bulé. Arinyana teu nyaraho, jaman manusa dikawasaan ku sato!

Jayana buta-buta, hanteu pati lila; tapi, bongan kacarida teuing nyangsara ka somah anu pada ngarep-ngarep caringin reuntas di alun-alun. Buta bakal jaradi wadal, wadal pamolahna sorangan. Iraha mangsana? Engké, mun geus témbong budak angon! Ti dinya loba nu ribut, ti dapur laju salembur, ti lembur jadi sanagara! Nu barodo jaradi gélo marantuan nu garelut, dikokolotan ku budak buncireung! Matakna garelut? Marebutkeun warisan. Nu hawek hayang loba; nu boga hak marénta bagianana. Ngan nu aréling caricing. Arinyana mah ngalalajoan. Tapi kabarérang.

Nu garelut laju rareureuh; laju kakara arengeuh; kabéh gé taya nu meunang bagian. Sabab warisan sakabéh béak, béakna ku nu nyarekel gadéan. Buta-buta laju nyarusup, nu garelut jadi kareueung, sarieuneun ditempuhkeun leungitna nagara. Laju naréangan budak angon, nu saungna di birit leuwi nu pantona batu satangtung, nu dihateup ku handeuleum ditihangan ku hanjuang. Naréanganana budak tumbal. sejana dék marénta tumbal. Tapi, budak angon enggeus euweuh, geus narindak babarengan jeung budak anu janggotan; geus mariang pindah ngababakan, parindah ka Lebak Cawéné!

Nu kasampak ngan kari gagak, keur ngelak dina tutunggul. Daréngékeun! Jaman bakal ganti deui. tapi engké, lamun Gunung Gedé anggeus bitu, disusul ku tujuh gunung. Génjlong deui sajajagat. Urang Sunda disarambat; urang Sunda ngahampura. Hadé deui sakabéhanana. Sanagara sahiji deui. Nusa Jaya, jaya deui; sabab ngadeg ratu adil; ratu adil nu sajati.

Tapi ratu saha? Ti mana asalna éta ratu? Engké ogé dia nyaraho. Ayeuna mah, siar ku dia éta budak angon!

Jig geura narindak! Tapi, ulah ngalieuk ka tukang!